Ottenheimer Chapter 7
Writing and Literacy
Writing and Symbolism
Not all universal symbols are universal.
Author gives the example of her bathroom experience and the universal symbol for women’s room
Note the skirt that she saw as a symbol for women, but that a Comoros man saw as a sign for men.
Men in many Pacific Island countries also wear a “skirt”
She goes on to discuss the NASA plaque launched with the Pioneer 10 in 1972.
It was intended to be a universal form of communication
The raised hand, for instance, was intended as a signal of friendship
But, visual symbols that we use to are to a great extent arbitrary (just like we have talked about for spoken language)
For instance, different languages have different-sounding words for a small, furry house pet that ‘meows’.
English it is cat, Shinzwani it is mpaha, and in Japanese it is neko
As you learn a new language you are likely to want to learn how to write it.
What is Writing?
Writing is not language because:
We do not need to teach language (it is innate), but writing is taught.
Not all cultures have writing; it is not universal as is language.
Language is ancient, writing is recent.
Writing is considered to be:
A way of recording language by visible marks
A system of graphic symbols that can be used to reflect any thought.
System of more or less permanent marks used to represent an utterance in such a way that it can be recovered more or less exactly without the intervention of the utterer.
The first of these three definitions talks about recording ‘language’ and the second is about conveying meaning and thought and the third reminds us that we record utterances
While it not necessary to think of writing as representing spoken language, that is the general view.
Writing (the graphic representation of language) is considered secondary to speech
Most scholars differentiate complete writing systems from partial writing systems
Complete writing systems allow you to record any and all thoughts and words
Partial writing systems are limited in what they can convey
“Picture writing systems such as the bathroom signs, NASA space probe are partial
They convey only what they can picture, and are limited by cultural understandings.
How Does Writing Work?
Suggestion: If the vocabulary of this chapter is confusing, visit our library and watch the this film: The Writing Code: The Greatest Invention.
Writing systems work by using symbols to represent sounds as well as ideas or meanings. There is no general agreement on what to call each of these types of symbols.
Option 1 (Phonetic signs):
Words like phonetic, phonographic, and sonographic have been suggested for the symbols that represent sounds.
Phonetic sign is a graphic mark that represents one or more sounds of a language
A bit different from a phonetic symbol; the linguistic transcription of a single sound
The phonetic sign is the mark you make on paper
Use <> for signs, and [ ] for symbol
Single sound example: In English is [s], but in Arabic one writes < س >
Group of sounds example: In English is [ks] or Japanese one writes < サ> for [sa]
Signs read differently in different languages: may be [ʃ ] in French as in chaise, [x}] in German or Czech as in Bach, or as [tʃ ] in English as in chair
Option 2 (Semantic signs):
Words like semantic, pictographic, logographic and ideographic have been suggested for the symbols that represent meaning.
A semantic sign may or may not also represent sounds, but representing sounds is not the focus of a semantic sign
The primary focus is to represent meaning.
For instance, <2> represents the idea of a specific number in many languages. The actual pronunciation of this idea is not specifically coded in the sign.
In English it is two, it is deux in French and so forth
Option 3: Some writing systems use phonetic and semantic signs in the same written word.
In English, we write <2nd> for [sɛkənd], and in French it is <2e>
The Internet site called L337 (an urban dictionary, is another example
Kinds of Writing 1
Both writing systems based on phonetic signs and/or on semantic signs are equally complex and neither is used by more ‘advanced’ cultures.
Old-fashioned classifications were based on predominance of sign types
Semantic vs. phonetic signs
Ideographic/logographic vs. syllabic/alphabetic systems
Assumed progression from semantic to phonetic
Are now understand this path to be ethnocentric
We will briefly discuss each of these systems listed here: 1) Pictographic; 2) rebus; 3) logographic; 4 syllabic; 5) logosyllabic; and 6) alphabetic.
Pictographic “Writing”
Pictographic writing uses pictures or images represent things; most early attempts at keeping records were pictographic
Generally, the pictures look something like the things they represent
This symbol ( ☼ ) could represent the sun
Pictographs alone are not complete writing systems in that pictographs generally can only represent what they draw. One solution is that meanings can be extended:
☼ can now mean warmth
Extensions require cultural context
Kinds of Writing 2
Rebus Writing
Rebus writing uses a single picture to represent words that sound the same
This is a way to move away from the concrete limitations of pictographs. For example, in English the words I and eye sound the same. Also in English the words sun and son
Rebus writing allows for sentences like: Eye sea ewe, Eye c u, Got 2 go
Can be applied to any symbol not just pictographs.
Example the English <2> can stand in for two, too, or to
Much of texting using this type of writing
Rebus writing was a major breakthrough in writing, which was independently discovered in Sumeria (3,000 BCE); China (1,500 BCE) & Mayan America (0 BCE)
Kinds of Writing 3
Logographic Writing (Also called Ideographic writing)
Logographic writing uses graphic signs to represent words or ideas associated with those words
Logographs are the signs in a logographic system
Logographs are semantic signs in the fullest sense of the word.
While this type of writing is called both logographic and ideographic these words mean slightly different things:
Logograph means “word-sign”, and Ideograph means “idea-sign”
Your author prefers logograph to represent both words and ideas
Many logographs may have evolved from pictographs, but they became more abstract over time.
Rebus writing allows for a single sign to represent more than one word, logographs move beyond this and assigns individual signs to individual words.
☼ = the spoken word “sun” [sǝn]
@ sign = “at” (in English), “herring” (in Czech)
They generally do not look like the word or idea they represent after a time
Unlike rebus writing, the symbol used does not have to sound the same as the word/idea being represented
Kinds of Writing 4
Syllabic Writing
Syllabic writing uses graphic signs to represent individual syllables
This was a significant development for writing systems
This means signs can be used phonetically as well as (or instead of) semantically.
Writing can also be more efficient.
Hypothetical examples in English
If we let @ stand for the sound of the syllable [æt] we could write cat as , catch as and so forth
Or if ☼ is the sign for the syllable “sun” [sǝn]we could write ☼ken, ☼der, ☼dry, ☼shine
Syllabaries (syllabic writing systems) work best in languages with mostly CV, VC, and V syllables (C is consonants and V as vowels) Can be a problem as in scratch: CCCVCCC!
They work best for languages such as Chinese, Cherokee, Mayan, Inuit, Vai and so forth
They work worst for languages such as English, Czech and Russian
One of the best known Syllabaries is that of Cherokee (see next page).
Japanese uses two different syllabaries: Hiragana is the more commonly used one; Katakana is more for formal documents or for borrowed words.
Cherokee Syllabary (Click to see image)
Kinds of Writing 5
Logosyllabic Writing
Signs carry both semantic and phonetic information
A combination of logographic and syllabic signs
Best known of these is cuneiform (wedge-shaped) writing of Sumeria, the Mayan glyphs and contemporary Chinese characters.
Until recently each of these was thought of as entirely logographic, but now we know they are a combination
Example: In cuneiform, ka is the semantic sign for mouth, the phonetic sign [me] you create the word for tongue, pronounced [eme]
Example 2: In cuneiform, ka is the semantic sign for mouth, the phonetic sign [nun] you create the word for lip, pronounced [nundum]
Note that [ka] does not contribute the way these words are pronounced.
[ka] is acting as a semantic sign, helping you to think of other words related to mouth
Both [eme] and [num] are acting as phonetic signs
A logosyllabic system is useful in differentiating two or more words that sound the same.
Chinese [yaŋ] = “sheep” & “ocean” --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for water and it clarifies
Chinese [tʃan] = “to divine” & “to moisten --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for water and it clarifies
Chinese [ma] = “horse” & “to mother --Same phonetic sign for both, but add the semantic sign for woman and it clarifies
Kinds of Writing 6
Logosyllabic Writing (continued)
Scholars use the term determinative to describe a sign added to another sign used to clarify meaning or create new words.
Phonetic determinatives help to suggest related words that are pronounced differently
The ancient Mayan glyphs are especially interesting for the way that they combine logographic, syllabic, and logosyllabic strategies all in the same writing system.
The king named Pakal can be written several ways: logographic, syllabic and logosyllabic
See the drawings on page 205.
Fun: Decode a stela
Kinds of Writing 7
Alphabetic Writing
Alphabetic writing uses graphic signs to represent individual consonants and vowels.
English strings signs together, one after the other
Arabic and Hebrew place the vowel signs above or below the consonants.
For instance, one writes [ka] with two signs: < س> & < َ>
The first sign is for [k] and the second is for [a] to create: ﮒ
While the ideal alphabetic system would be one of a one sign to one sound this does not always happen. Example: x = ks
Debate as to whether the Phoenicians (Akkadians) or the Greeks were the first to invent the alphabetic system.
Kinds of Writing 8
Khipus
All the examples to this point have been about making signs by placing marks on paper, clay, stone, the computer screen and other surfaces, there is one kind of record-keeping that is not like these
The Inka (Inca) system of khipu is one where knots are tied into cords
Once thought to be a simple mnemonic for keeping track of things such as the days of the week or number of items.
The early Spanish conquistadores spoke to their use for historical, mythological and astrological events.
Today, with the use of computers, it is becoming more clear that this was a system of writing
So far it is not completely deciphered! MIT is trying to crack this code
Issues of classification
Read about the issues on pp. 207-208 if interested
Decoding a Writing System
Determine the principles/strategies
So determine which strategies are in place, such as syllabic, alphabetic, etc.
Mostly it is an issue of whether the different symbols are meant to represent consonants and vowels, syllables, or whole words
Graphemes are the smallest segment of speech represented in a writing system: Sounds, syllables, whole words
Allographs are predictable variants of graphemes: English print and cursive styles; initial and final shapes
Lexemes are units of writing surrounded by white space, in this context.
The process is very similar to that of substitution frames; look for minimal pairs, similarity of shapes
What Does it Mean to Have Writing?
Having Writing
There is a stereotype that if a culture does not have writing it is uncivilized.
It is less clear than one might think as to whether a group has a writing system
The Lahu of Thailand have several writing systems developed for them by outsiders
Does an introduced writing system “count?”
Words on Paper
The process of putting spoken words onto paper is called entextualization It is more than putting words onto paper.
For instance most people do not speak in separate words
Example: {dijt yεt] is how we tend to speak “Did you eat yet?”
Writing systems are not perfect representations of speech, but how to explain differences between from ?
This example is more about ‘categories of people’ and our expectations about them
More educated as compared to folksy.
Remember Sarah Palin controversy over her speaking style? Listen to Labov on NPR
So the question are about power and who controls writing, what stereotypes exist, and what is correct?
Literacy and Literacies 1
Writing, Reading, Identity, and Power
How do individuals really learn to read?
For Biblical missionaries: Can one retain attention if only religious literature is available?
Does the ability to write cause people to think differently?
In what was does writing represent actual speech?
What does it mean to be literate?
Are there different kinds of literacy?
Is book literacy the same as map literacy? As computer literacy?
There appears to be a real link between reading, writing and speaking when we talk about literacy
Literacy as technology
Could think of literacy as a kind of technology
Some call it autonomous approach: the idea that literacy is an independent technology connected to civilization
Writing is thought to be different from speaking.
Once you master, though, it should be easy to decipher any piece of writing.
Literacy as practice
Of course we can interpret the marks written on a paper differently
The practice approach to literacy (also called the New Literacy Studies) suggests that literacy is a set of habitual behaviors (practices) exercised in specific cultural contexts and for specific reasons.
National Endowments of the Arts reported that only 52% of Americans read a book in 2004.
But the details tell us they asked about reading for pleasure
And they defined reading “literature’ as pleasurable reading and ignored other options
Literacy and Literacies 2
Are there benefits to literacy? Does it change the way you think and reason?
Autonomous theorists say ‘yes’. That literate people see themselves and the world differently than oral peoples
They argue that literacy is needed to think abstractly and critically!
We are going to challenge this one!!!
Literacy and orality
We will use the term orality to discuss the ability to hear and speak
Walter Ong (professor of English literature) saw differences between those who are ‘non- or pre-literate’ and those who are literate.
Obviously Western-biased, maybe even bigoted
See pp. 219-222 for examples that counter Ong’s ideas.
Literacy and Literacies 3
Literacy and permanence
Another suggested benefit of literacy is permanence
If something is written down it is there forever, in this view
This is a comment on the ‘lack of permanence’ of oral traditions
But, as anyone who has crashed their computer knows, permanence is not always a part of literacy!
Also, written documents can be changed/revised.
Spoken words are becoming more permanent with recordings and such
Photographic records can also act in place of written words (see the example called “Photographic Truths” on pp. 224-225).
Literacy and linguistic awareness
The civilizing effects of literacy have been linked only to alphabetic literacy and not to the other kinds of literacy we outlined earlier in this chapter.
Obviously wrong, but literacy can alter how we are aware of the elements of language as a consequence of how we represent them.
Literacy and Power 1
By now we are aware of the many ways to define literacy and the many ways to read and write.
The ethnography of reading
How these different literacies play out in different cultures is gaining the attention of researchers.
The ethnography of reading is inspired by Hymes ‘Ethnography of Speaking (Chapter 5)
Shirley Brice Health used Hymes model to develop the ethnography of reading.
She looked at literacy events: The occasions in which individuals attempt to read and/or write
She found that peoples in different communities approached the task of reading in different ways.
A complete discussion of her findings is on p. 214.
As we have seen certain kinds of literacy are rewarded and others are less acceptable. This statement reveals a power relationship with literacy
Issues of access: Who should read?
In the Middle Ages, it was appropriate for the elite to be illiterate; scribes did this work
During the Enlightenment, Western attitudes changed and the elites were literate, but feared the masses if they were literate.
This idea was then applied to African American slaves in the US.
At the end of the 18th century, limited literacy of the working classes was seen as more efficient in the new industrialized world.
Public schools grew out of charity schools and had a significant impact on US populace.
Immigrants were seen to be assimilated through education.
Literacy and Power 2
Issues of colonialism: Denying literacy, imposing literacy
Referring back to the Spanish conquest of the Maya, the conquerors were puzzled.
They had only had experience with non-literate groups and so thought all non-Western were not literate.
They defined the Mayan writing as pagan and tried to stamp it out.
Cracking the Mayan Code
The Mayan shifted to an oral tradition
Another example of imposed colonial ways is seen in New Guinea.
Among the Kaluli, the missionaries imposed a writing system they developed.
Books became a new type of authority, which challenged discussion and consensus.
The result is a new elite: Those who can read
Issues of standardization: How to spell
With people we see that spelling can differ
versus for instance
Remember prescriptive and descriptive grammars? (Chapter 4)
For Europe, attempts were made as early as the 8th century
Written Roman became the standard throughout the Roman Empire.
Romance languages were a product of applying writing to local venaculars, rather than using the ‘correct’ Roman forms.
The standardization of a writing system and an a spelling system often legitimates particular dialects.
This is often a political issue
In the US, the Midland dialect is the standard
Standard American English
Literacy and Power 3
Issues of reform: Changing spellings, reforming scripts
At American independence, there was the suggestion that we create an independent spelling system.
Webster slowly ‘Americanized’ the spelling of English words
He promoted the use of over in words like defense
Also instead of in words link
Other examples can be read on p. 219
Spelling can become linked to cultural identity; we know if a writer is American or English by the spelling.
There was a Turkish scriptal reform from 1928-1931 when the Arabic alphabet shifted to Roman.
One effect of this shift was a change in the number of literate persons
Due to required coursework, 75% of men and 43% of women were literate in the Roman script (as compared to the 9% in Arabic prior to the shift)
Ways of Reading, Ways of Writing
Is the new electronic communication changing the way we read?
It is blurring the line between written and spoken communications.
Writers use asterisks, capital letters and such to interject spoken intonation. (I learned this when I capitalized an announcement in my OL class, meaning to make it stand out, and learned I had shouted at everyone!)
The new abbreviations in electronic discussion boards are moving into speech (lol, for instance)
Linear versus Multimodal reading and writing
She is talking about whether you are a person who reads from start to finish (Linear) or one who bounces between tasks (Mulitmodal, or what I would call a multitasker)
Interestingly, she talks to the trouble multimodals have with the creation of outlines (which are linear)
She mentions a website I love: The Machine is Us/ing Us
Public versus Private reading and writing
Reading and writing are often thought of as a solitary activity
Public reading and writing are being developed
Blogs is one example, but look more like slowed-down conversation
An example of an attempt at communal writing shows that this type of writing is likely to be limited
Michael Stephens tried to write a book online and asked for feedback
In 2006, he retreated to his office to ‘digest’. Back to the solitary writing.
Wikipedia and other wiki’s
Here is an interesting site: How to be a model Wikipedia contributor
