Implementing Affirmative Action In Public Services:
Comparative Administrative Practice
Acronyms
AFHQ Armed Forces Headquarters
AIR All India Reporter
AIS All India Services
ANC African National Congress
BN Barisan Nasional
COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions
DPC Departmental Promotion Committee
DPSA Department of Public Service and Administration (SA)
HDI Human Development Index (UNDP)
IAS Indian Administrative Service
IPS Indian Police Service
IFS Indian Forest Service
INSAP Institute of Applied Policy
MADS Malaysian Administrative and Diplomatic Service
MAS Malay Administrative Service
MCS Malayan Civil Service
NEP New Economic Policy
NGO Non Governmental Organization
NP National Party
OBC Other Backward Classes (India)
PAWC Provincial Administration of the Western Cape
PEP Provincial Executive Programs
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PSC Public Service Commission
PSD Public Services Department
PTD Perkhidmatan Tadbir dan Diplomatik
RDP Reconstruction and Development Program
RSA Republic of South Africa
SC Scheduled Caste
SSC Staff Selection Commission
ST Scheduled Tribe
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNMO United Malay National Organization
UNRISD United Nations Research in Social Development
UPSC Union Public Service Commission
WPTPS White Paper on the Transformation of the Public Service
About this report
This report is part of an initiative by PREM Network’s Public Sector Group to compile, analyze and present Comparative Administrative Practices in different areas of pubic sector management. It describes how different public services have designed, implemented and monitored affirmative action. Knowing how governments implement affirmative action is useful for understanding pressures to expand public employment. It provides insight into how difficult reform options can be carried through.
The analysis draws upon four case studies of the public services of India, Malaysia, Nigeria and South Africa that were prepared for the World Bank’s Governance Knowledge Sharing Program. Pachampet Sundaram, independent consultant, wrote the case studies of India and Malaysia. Professor John Erero of the Department of Public Administration, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria and Babatunde Oyedeji, Independent Policy Group, Abuja wrote the case study on Nigeria with the assistance of Ayo Adesopo of Obafemi Awolowo University. The South African case study was written by Professor Robert Cameron of the Department of Political Studies, University of Cape Town. The study was designed by Ranjana Mukherjee and Ladipo Adamolekun who also analyzed the cases and prepared the summary of findings.
Contents
I. Introduction 1
II. Summary of findings 5
II.A. Who is preferred, and to what extent? 5
II.B. Implementation 10
II.C. Monitoring 14
II.D. Results 18
III. Affirmative Action in India’s public service: A case study 21
III.A. Background 21
III.B. Implementation Framework 24
III.C. Enforcement of Affirmative Action 29
III.D. Effect of Affirmative Action on Civil Service 32
III.E. Future of Affirmative Action in Public Service 37
III.F. Appendices 39
IV. Affirmative Action in Malaysia’s Public Service: A case study 41
IV.A. Background 41
IV.A. Context, Objectives, and Framework of Affirmative Action in Public Service 44
IV.B. Enforcement of Affirmative Action and its Effect 46
IV.C. Consequences of Affirmative Action for Public Service 50
IV.D. Future of Affirmative Action in Public Service 51
V. Affirmative Action in Nigeria’s Public Service: A case Study 53
V.A. Background 53
V.A. Objectives of Affirmative Action and Relevant Constitutional Provisions, Laws, Rules, and Regulations 56
V.B. Enforcement Record to Date and Impact on the Composition of the Civil Service 58
V.C. Assessment of the Consequences of “Federal Character” for Civil Service Performance 63
V.D. Concluding Observations 64
V.E. Appendix 67
VI. Affirmative Action in the South African Public service: A case Study 72
V.A. Background 72
VI.A. Objectives of Affirmative Action and the Relevant Constitutional Provisions, Laws, Rules, and Regulations 75
VI.B. Enforcement Record to Date and the Impact on the Composition of the Public Service 79
VI.C. Assessment of the Consequences for Public Service Performance 83
VI.D. Conclusions 89
VI.E. Appendix. 90
VII. References, by Chapter 93
List of tables
Table II.1. Summary of Groups Preferred in Federal Public Service 8
Table III.2. India: Combined representation of SC and ST in different service groups (as % of federal government employment) 32
Table III.3. India: Combined Representation of SC and ST public sector enterprises of central government, 2000 32
Table III.4. India: Vacancies filled in All Civil Services 33
Table III.5. India: Recruitment of Other Backward Classes 33
Table IV.6. Malaysia: Ethnic composition of population in Malaysia (including North Borneo), 1957–2000 41
Table IV.7. Malaysia: Public Employment in Malaysia (2002) 43
Table IV.8. Malaysia: Ethnic Composition of Public Service 48
Table IV.9. Malaysia: Ethnic representation in top positions in federal ministries, 2000 49
Table IV.10. Malaysia: Women in public service, 1999 50
Table IV.11. Malaysia: Education levels in MCS by ethnic origin, 1971 50
Table V.12. Nigeria: Selected macroeconomic and social indicators 55
Table V.13. Nigeria: Gender representation, March 2003 58
Table V.14. Nigeria: Consolidated Statistics of FCS (Presidency, Federal Ministries, and Extra-Ministerial Departments), 2000 67
Table V.15. Nigeria: Staff distribution summary by state and category, 2003 68
Table V.16. Nigeria: Summary of consolidated statistics of the FCS, selected years 69
Table V.17. Nigeria: Total staff distribution by geopolitical zones, selected years 71
Table V.18. Nigeria: Analysis of the impact of implementing federal character principle (by state) 71
Table VI.19. South Africa: Human Development Index 73
Table VI.20.South Africa: percentage of black managers 1995–2004 82
Table VI.21. South Africa: Gender composition in management, 1995–2004 83
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