Culture & Society Culture (1)
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- Impact of Culture
- Material culture
- Cooperation
- Language
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1)
- Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (2)
- Acceptance of Norms Breaching
- Culture Dominant Ideology (1)
- Culture Dominant Ideology (2)
- Dominant Ideology Poverty
- Cultural Variation (2)
- Culture Ethnocentrism
- Arizona Bans K-12 Ethnic Studies
- Society influences the individual
- Why Social Structure Matters
- Social Structure (2)
- Culture: The Functionalist Perspective
- How are these problems resolved
- Culture: The Conflict Perspective
- Culture: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
| Chapter 3
Culture & Society Culture (1) (pp.59-60) Totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior Example: language, beliefs, values, norms, symbols It is generally referred to your way of life How you dress, marriage ceremonies, patterns of work, leisure activities It also encompasses material goods that have importance for some members of society Culture (2) In some respects, the development of culture makes people freer For example, culture has become more diversified and consensus has declined in many areas of life, allowing people more choice in how they live In other respects, the development of culture puts limits on who we can become For example, the culture of buying consumer goods has become a virtually compulsory national pastime. Increasingly, therefore, people define themselves by the goods they purchase Culture (3) Culture shapes What we do, how we live What we think How we feel Elements that we commonly but wrongly describe as “human nature” US and Japanese cultures stress achievement and hard work US society values individualism Japanese society values collective harmony Impact of Culture Determinism means that social structures and cultural factors determine behavior of an individual Karl Marx believed that “it is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness” (1859). Durkheim stated that individuals have little control over social facts, “facts, concepts, expectations that come not from individual responses and preferences, but that come from the social community which socializes each of its members” (Faraganis, 2000). Material culture (p. 58) Production is the one of the main tools in the human cultural survival kit. It involves making and using tools and techniques that improve our ability to take what we want from nature Examples: food, houses, factories, clothes Material culture reflects a society’s level of technology Knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings Lenski A society’s level of technology is crucial in determining what cultural ideas and artifacts emerge or are even possible The more complex a society’s technology, the easier it is for members of that society to shape the world for themselves Nonmaterial Culture Ways of using material objects to transmit customs, beliefs and patterns of communication Example: Staring at people Abstraction is the capacity to create general ideas or ways of thinking that are not linked to particular instances Symbols are one important type of idea (more details later). They are things that carry particular meanings. Languages, mathematical notations, and signs are all sets of symbols Cooperation is the capacity to create a complex social life by establishing norms, or generally accepted ways of doing things Culture Lag The tendency of symbolic culture to change more slowly than material culture (Ogburn, 1966 [1922]) When nonmaterial culture is adapting to new material conditions. It is a period of maladjustment Example: Not paying your bills online when it is now the general trend Language (pp. 72-73) A language is a system of symbols strung together to communicate thought Most important element of culture (foundation of culture) Equipped with language, we can share understandings, pass experience and knowledge from one generation to the next, and make plans for the future In short, language allows culture to develop Abstract system of words, meanings, symbols Writing/characters/numerals Symbols like street signs Gestures like nonverbal communication Human can manipulate those symbols while animals have fixed set of signs Consequently, sociologists commonly think of language as a cultural invention that distinguishes humans from other animals Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (1) (pp. 72-73) Linguistic relativity hypothesis The language we use influence our perceptions of the world Deals with the role of language in interpreting the world People see and understand the world through the cultural lens of language We conceptualize the world through language Words describing snow: black ice, powder etc… Word symbols organize our world Language is culturally determined Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (2) (p. 72-73) The Sapir-Whorf thesis holds that we experience certain things in our environment and form concepts about those things (path 1 to 2) We then develop language to express our concepts (path 2 to 3) Finally, language itself influences how we see the world(path 3 to 1) Symbols Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture Entering an unfamiliar culture reminds us of the power of symbols Culture shock is really the inability to “read” meaning in unfamiliar surroundings Culture shock is a two way process Traveler experiences culture shock when meeting people whose way of life is different Traveler can inflict culture shock on others by acting in ways that offend them Symbolic meanings also vary within a single society Norms (p. 58) Social rules that specify appropriate or inappropriate behavior Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members In order to work, norms must be widely shared and understood People respond to each other with sanctions Rewards or punishments that encourage conformity to cultural norms Types of Norms (1) Formal norms Generally written down Strict rules to punish violators Example: Laws, syllabus Informal norms Generally understood, but not precisely enforced Folkways Norms governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern When breached, violator is seen as RUDE Taboos Most extreme form of norm. You just don’t do these. They raise a sense of revulsion in society’s members. Virtually all taboos are enacted into law Example: incest in the U.S Mores Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance Can be formal or informal norms Example: go to church in a bikini Acceptance of Norms & Breaching Why don’t people follow norms? Norms are not consistently enforced Behavior which appears to violate society’s norms actually represents adherence to norms of a group Norms are violated because they conflict Exceptions and circumstances allow violation of norms Norms are subject to change as political, social and economic conditions change People can violate them more often, and are less likely to be punished for it Culture & Dominant Ideology (1) Dominant ideology: Set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic and political interests Functionalists believe that stability in society depends on a consensus and support of society’s members They emphasize cultural stability, downplays the importance of change Conflict theorists believe that a common culture exists but that it maintains privileges of certain groups, who enforce norms They tie our cultural values of competitiveness and material success to our country’s capitalist economy Strains of inequality erupt into movements for social change Culture & Dominant Ideology (2) Marx says that capitalist societies have a dominant ideology that benefits the ruling class Powerful groups in society control wealth and property, but also produce beliefs about reality through religion, education, and the media Example: the American Dream Dominant Ideology & Poverty Two explanations for poverty: Individual explanations emphasize personal responsibility Structural explanations blame external factors such as inferior educational opportunities, discrimination, low wages etc… Which one represents the dominant ideology in the U.S.? Cultural Variation (1) (pp. 67-69) Subcultures Segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of more, folkways, and values that differs from larger society Culture within the dominant culture Differ but do NOT oppose the dominant culture Example: computer hackers, Star Wars fans etc... Cultural Variation (2) (pp. 67-69) Countercultures are subversive subcultures They oppose dominant values and seek to replace them Countercultures rarely pose a serious threat to social stability Counterculturalists favored a collective and cooperative lifestyle “Being” more important than “doing” Led some people to “drop out” of the larger society Countercultures are still flourishing Example: Hippie movement in the 1960s, Black Panther Party of Self-Defense Culture & Ethnocentrism (pp.69-72) Despite its importance in human life, culture is often invisible. People tend to take their own culture for granted In contrast, people are often startled when confronted by cultures other than their own. The ideas, norms, values, and techniques of other cultures frequently seem odd, irrational, and even inferior Judging another culture exclusively by the standards of one’s own is known as ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism (pp.69-72) Tendency to see one’s culture or way of life as the “norm” or as superior Example: Using your own culture to critique others Ethnocentrism impairs sociological analysis. This can be illustrated by Marvin Harris’s (1974) functionalist analysis of a practice that seems bizarre to many Westerners Hindu peasants refuse to slaughter cattle and eat beef because the cow is a religious symbol of life This seems mysterious to most Westerners, for it takes place amid poverty and hunger that could presumably be alleviated if only the peasants would slaughter their “useless” cattle for food instead of squandering scarce resources to protect these animals Cow worship is an economically rational practice in rural India. However, Indian peasants can’t afford tractors, so cows are needed to give birth to oxen, which are in high demand for plowing. Moreover, the cows produce hundreds of millions of pounds of recoverable manure, about half of which is used as fertilizer and half as a cooking fuel Cultural Relativism (1) (pp.69-72) It is the belief that all cultures and all cultural practices have equal value Viewing people’s behavior from the perspective of their culture with their beliefs and values “the effort to understand a given social practice on the basis of the cultural meanings of the society in which it takes place” Trying to understand behavior in its social context Example: female circumcision in African countries How should we evaluate this practice? Cultural Relativism (2) (pp.69-72) If almost any behavior is the norm somewhere in the world, does that mean everything is equally right? We are all members of a single human species, what are the universal standards of proper conduct? In trying to develop universal standards, how do we avoid imposing our own standards on others? Multiculturalism (1) (p. 67) A perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting respect and equal standing for all cultural traditions U.S. society has downplayed cultural diversity Defines itself in terms of its European and especially Anglo-saxon immigrants A bill in Arizona in 2008 stated “a primary purpose of public education is to inculcate values of American citizenship. Public tax dollars used in public schools should not be used to denigrate American values and the teachings of Western civilization.” It was not passed. However, an Administrative Law Judge just found the Ethnic Studies program to be against state law in Dec. 2011 The measure is at least partially a response to a controversy surrounding an Ethnic Studies program in the Tucson Unified School District, which critics have said is unpatriotic and teaches revolution At the political level, cultural diversity has become a source of conflict Arizona Bans K-12 Ethnic Studies Multiculturalism (2) (p. 67) The conflict is most evident in the debates that have surfaced in recent years concerning curricula in the American educational system History books did not deny that African Americans were enslaved and that force was used to extort territory from Native Americans and Mexicans. They did, however, make it seem as if these unfortunate events were part of the American past, with few implications. The history of the United States was presented as a history of progress involving the elimination of racial privilege Multiculturalism (3) (p. 67) A multicultural approach to education highlights the achievements of nonwhites and non-Europeans in American society It gives more recognition to the way European settlers came to dominate nonwhite and non-European communities It stresses how racial domination resulted in persistent social inequalities, and it encourages Spanish-language, elementary level instruction given in Spanish in the states of California, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Florida, where a substantial minority of people speak Spanish at home The texts of the nineteen-twenties . . . portrayed the Indians as lazy, childlike, and cruel” (Fitzgerald, 1979: 91). Proponents of multiculturalism regard these descriptions as ethnocentric or racist Multiculturalism (4) (p. 67) Most critics of multiculturalism do not argue against teaching cultural diversity. What they fear is that multiculturalism is being taken too far (Glazer, 1997; Schlesinger, 1991). They believe that multiculturalism has three negative consequences 1 - Critics believe that multicultural education hurts minority students by forcing them to spend too much time on non-core subjects. To get ahead in the world, they say, one needs to be skilled in English and math. By taking time away from these subjects, multicultural education impedes the success of minority-group members in the work world. (Multiculturalists argue that pride and self-esteem help minority students get ahead in the work world) Multiculturalism (5) (p. 67) 2 - Critics also believe that multicultural education causes political disunity and results in more interethnic and interracial conflict. They want schools and colleges to stress the common elements of the national experience and highlight Europe’s contribution to American culture. (Multiculturalists reply that political unity and interethnic and interracial harmony maintain inequality in American society) 3 - Finally, critics of multiculturalism complain that it encourages the growth of cultural relativism. The trouble with this view is that some cultures oppose the most deeply held values of most Americans Society (p. 60) System of interrelationships that connect individuals together Refers to people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture No culture can exist without a society but culture is the glue to society Some degrees of conformity is needed for society to exist People learn the norms of that society and they become engrained in people’s minds. They, then, become unquestioned and passed on to the next generations Society influences the individual Through other individuals (social influence) Whether we’re aware of their doing so or not, other people affect our thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors Through social structure (societal influence) Statuses/roles + groups + organizations + social institutions + culture = society Why Social Structure Matters “Everyday social life--our thoughts, actions, feelings, decisions, interactions, and so on--is the product of a complex interplay between societal forces and personal characteristics.” (Newman, 1995) “Societal forces” are not some mysterious thing that happens behind the scenes They work through our statuses and roles, the groups we belong to, the organizations we work through, and the institutions with which we are inexorably intertwined. Social Structure (1) Ways in which society is organized into predictable relationships and controls its members’ behaviors Social ordering Interweaving of people’s interactions and relationships Our social interaction with others is controlled by the social structure, which means that ways in which people respond to one another (can be face-to-face, phone, computer etc…) are based on social constraints Example: When you meet somebody for the 1st time, your behavior is controlled by what you see in that person (status, roles etc…) Social Structure (2) Statuses Full range of socially defined positions within a large group or society Example: student, doctor etc… People have many statuses called STATUS SET Although status cues may be useful in helping people define the situation, they also pose a social danger, for status cues can quickly degenerate into stereotypes Ascribed Status A social position a person receives at birth or takes involuntarily later in life Matters about which we have little choice They are not earned through talent or actions, and are hard to change, if not impossible Example: race, ethnicity and gender (it is not biological) Achieved Status A social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects a personal ability and effort Comes to us through our individual efforts They can change but can also be affected by ascribed statuses Example: being promoted in a company can depend on your work but also on your gender or race Master Status A status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life Can be negative as well as positive Gender is a master status because all societies limit opportunities for women Physical disability can serve as a master status Status that dominates others and determines a person’s general position in society Race and gender tend to dominate our lives What about age? Roles Set of expectations for people who occupy a given status Example: teacher lectures and grade; student studies and takes exams Role Conflict Incompatible expectations arise form two or more social positions held by the same person Two STATUSES, two ROLES Role conflict occurs when two or more statuses held at the same time place contradictory role demands on a person Today’s female flight attendants experience role conflict to the degree that working in the airline industry requires frequent absences from home, whereas being a mother and a wife require spending considerable time at home Role Strain Differing demands and expectations are associated with the same status One STATUS, two conflicting ROLES Status: Friend Role: be honest be nice Role Exit The process by which people disengage from important social roles The process of becoming an “ex” Process begins as people come to doubt their ability to continue in a certain role “Exes” carry with them a self-image shaped by an earlier role “Exes” must also rebuild relationships with people who knew them in their earlier life Process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self identity and re-establishment of an identity Example: divorce, leaving a career Institutions Principal social structures used to organize, direct and execute the essential tasks of social living. Each institution is built around a standardized solution to a set of problems Example: schools, government agencies, legal system Culture: The Functionalist Perspective The functionalist perspective is based upon the assumption that society is a stable, orderly system with interrelated parts that serve specific functions According to functionalist theorists, societies where people share a common language and core values are more likely to have consensus and harmony All societies, however, have dysfunctions Inequalities among class, racial and gender lines contribute to problems, and multiple subcultures can lead to lack of consensus about core values How are these problems resolved? Resolution of problems comes with education about the value of cultural diversity (schools are charged with this responsibility) Culture: The Conflict Perspective Recall that the conflict perspective is based upon the assumption that social life is a continuous struggle in which members of powerful groups seek to control scarce resources Conflict theorists suggest that values and norms help create and sustain the privileged position of the powerful According to Karl Marx, ideas are cultural creations It is therefore possible society’s leaders to use ideology – that is, a system of ideas that guides the way people think and act – to maintain their positions of dominance in a society Culture: The Conflict Perspective According to Marx, people are not aware that they are being dominated because they have false consciousness, meaning that people hold beliefs that they think promote their best interest when in fact they are damaging to their best interests For example, when hate groups “blame” certain people for a society’s problems, they shift attention away from persons in position of political and economic power Extremist groups may perpetuate the very “problem” they think exists, and may maintain status quo Culture: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Recall that the Symbolic Interactionist perspective is engaged in micro-level analysis, and examines society as the sum of all people’s interactions People create, maintain and modify culture as they go about their day-to-day activities Our culture’s values and norms do not automatically determine our behavior. Rather, we re-interpret these values and norms with each situation we come across. In other words, our values and norms are dynamic; that is, we are constantly changing them. Culture: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Georg Simmel suggested that eventually culture takes on a life of its own – and begins to control us instead. For example, people initially created money as a means of exchange. It is a social construct that was designed to facilitate economies. Now, however, money has taken on a new meaning: it has become an end in itself (ie. material wealth), rather than a means to an end (ie. facilitating the exchange of goods and services). Not only goods and services, but even people have a relative “worth” applied to them: Bill Gates – $50 billion Oprah Winfrey - $2.5 billion Culture: The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Symbolic Interactionists examine how people maintain and change culture through interaction with others As a result, Symbolic Interactionism does not provide an outline to analyze how we shape culture and how it in turn shapes us. It fails to take into account the larger, macro- level social structures (eg. social class) that are considered in the Functionalist and Conflict perspectives Directory: uploads uploads -> Necessity of ending the economic, commercial and financial blockade imposed by the United States of America against Cuba uploads -> Raíces y Sueños: the Artistry of Cuba Call for Art – Exhibit Application uploads -> Why did democracy develop in Britain after 1850? 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