she argued for the equality of the sexes in marriage
22. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)
a. English writer viewed by many as the founder of
modern European feminism
b. Wrote Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
1. considered the strongest statement for the rights
of women in the 18th Century
2. considered women being expected to be subservient
to men was contrary to the true spirit of the
Enlightenment which upheld the ideal of all
humans possessing innate reason
3. argued if all humans were blessed with innate
reason that men and women should be treated as
equals to men in education, economics, and politics
D. The Social Environment of the Philosophes
1. The Enlightenment was not limited to any one class,
but obviously its greatest appeal was to the
aristocracy and the upper middle class
2. Tended to be urban rather than rural
3. Enlightenment left the common people unaffected for
the most part
4. Salons, particularly in Paris, were of great
importance during the Enlightenment for all of the
following reasons:
a. provided a forum for the serious discussion of the
ideas of the philosophes
b. gave social mobility to both men and women
c. were usually run by women for male guests
CULTURE AND SOCIETY IN AN AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature
Art
by the 1730s a new style of art known as ROCOCO had begun to affect decoration and architecture all over Europe
movement started in France but extremely popular in Germany
emphasized grace and gentle action
had a fondness for curves and liked to follow wandering lines of natural objects such as seashells or flowers
highly secular
Rococo had a sense of enchantment and exuberance
Major Rococo artists:
Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) [painter]—famous work is The Pilgrimage to Cythera (1716-1717)
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770) [painter]—masterpiece is the ceiling of the Bishop’s Palace at Wurzburg
Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753) [architect]—most famous design was the pilgrimage church of the Vierzehnheiligen
Domenikus Zimmermann (1685-1766) [architect]—famous design was the pilgrimage church of Wies
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) was a famous neoclassical artist of the era; famous work was Oath of Horatii (1784)
Music
the 17th and 18th centuries were formative years of classical music and saw the rise of the opera and oratorio, the sonata, the concerto, and the symphony
the Italians were the first to create these genres, but were soon followed by the Germans, Austrians, and English
Important Musicians
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
German
Perfected Baroque musical style
best known for his cantatas and motets
was equally capable of producing sublime religious as well as boisterous secular music
known for Mass in B Minor, St. Mathew’s Passion, Coffee Cantata, Toccotta and Fugue
George Frederick Handel (1685-1759)
German
perfected Baroque musical style
wrote music for large public audiences
predominantly wrote operas and other secular music
best known for his religious music (Messiah)
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
Hungarian
composed 104 symphonies
most famous works were oratorios—The Creation and The Seasons which were both dedicated to the common people
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
Austrian
Along with Haydn caused a musical shift from Italy to Austria
Known for his operas including: The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni
Literature
The Development of the Novel
18th Century writers, especially in England, used the modern novel to attack hypocrisies of the era and provide sentimental entertainment for a growing audience
Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)
English
Known for his use of sentiment and emotion
Most famous work was Pamela
Henry Fielding (1707-1754)
English
Attacked the hypocrisy of his age
Wrote novels about people without scruples who survived by their wits
Most famous work was Tom Jones
The Writing of History
the most significant change in writing histories in the 18th Century was the removal of God as a causative factor of change
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon was the most significant historical work of the time period; gave the rise of Christianity as the chief cause for the fall of the empire
The High Culture of the 18th Century
High culture refers to the literary and artistic culture of the educated and wealthy ruling classes
High culture in 18th Century Europe was characterized by the enormous impact of the book, magazine, and newspaper publishing with England leading the way.
an important aspect of the growth of publishing and reading in the 18th Century was the development of magazines such as England’s Spectator for the general public
in 1702 the first daily newspaper was published in London
most schools in 18th Century Europe were elitist and designed to serve the needs of the upper class
the curriculum of these secondary schools largely concentrated on the Greek and Latin classics with little attention paid to mathematics, the sciences, and modern languages
most universities of this era produced little intellectual growth and scholarship although there were exceptions such as the University of Gottingen in Hanover and the University of Edinburgh
an important development in education in Europe in the 18th Century was a broader and more practical university curriculum by the end of the century
Crime and Punishment
by the 18th Century, most European states had a hierarchy of courts to deal with civil and criminal cases
except in England, judicial torture remained an important means of obtaining evidence before a trial
punishments for crimes were often public and gruesome
public executions were a basic part of traditional punishment
appalled by unjust laws and brutal punishments of their times, some philosophes sought to create a new approach to justice
philosophes thought that punishments should serve as deterrents not as exercises in brutality
by the end of the 18th Century, a growing sentiment against executions and torture led to a decline in both corporal and capital punishment
The World of Medicine
in the 18th Century, medicine was practiced by a hierarchy of practitioners
below the physicians were the surgeons, who were still known as barber-surgeons well into the 18th Century from their original dual role
surgeons primary job was to bleed patients and perform surgeries without painkillers and often times in filthy conditions
during the 18th Century surgeons began to separate themselves from barbers and began undergoing training in dissecting corpses and studying anatomy more systematically
medical practitioners such as apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers, primarily served the common people in the 18th Century
despite appeals, hospitals remained in an infantile stage in the 18th Century
Popular Culture
refers to the often unwritten and unofficial culture passed down orally that was fundamental to the lives of most people
its distinguishing characteristic is its collective and public nature
the Carnival (festival leading up to Lent) of the Mediterranean world was a period of intense sexual activity and gross excesses
the same sense of community evident in religious festivals was also present in the chief gathering places of the common people, the local taverns and cabarets
in some countries the favorite drinks of poor people (gin in England/vodka in Russia) had devastating effects as poor people often drank themselves into oblivion
the rich were also heavy drinkers (usually port and brandy)
despite a widening cultural gap between rich and poor, urban fairs, boxing matches, and horse races often brought people of all classes together
chapbooks, printed on cheap paper containing both spiritual and secular content, were short brochures sold to the lower classes by street peddlers
chapbooks proved that popular culture did not have to be spread exclusively orally anymore
literacy rates in 18th Century Europe were especially high in cities
literacy rate of male artisans and workers rose from 28% in 1710 to 85% by 1789
literacy rate of women remained a constant 15% throughout the century
peasants remained largely illiterate
the spread of literacy was closely linked to primary education
the emphasis of the Protestant reformers on reading the Bible had led Protestant states to take greater interest in primary education
RELIGION AND THE CHURCHES
despite the anti-religious sentiments of many of this era’s philosophes, music and art had religious themes during this time
most Europeans were still Christians
even many of the church’s harshest critics didn’t think society could function without religious faith
The Institutional Church
in the 18th Century, churches, both Catholic and Protestant still played a major role in social and spiritual areas in European society
the established Catholic and Protestant churches were basically conservative institutions that upheld society’s hierarchical structure, privileged classes, and traditions
the church run by priest or pastor remained the center of religious practice
the church kept records of births, deaths, marriages, provided charity for the poor, supervised whatever primary education there was, and cared for orphans---------------------------------------------------------------------------1&2
church/state relations
Lutheranism---Scandinavia and northern Germany
Anglicanism---England
Calvinism---Scotland, the United Provinces (Netherlands), and some Swiss cantons and German states
Orthodox ----Russia and southeastern Europe
Islam---Ottoman Empire
Roman Catholicism---Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, the Hapsburg Empire, Poland, and most of southern Germany
the Catholic church remained hierarchically structured with a wide gulf in the standard of living still existing between the upper clergy and lower clergy
Catholic countries began a “nationalization” process of the church within their borders
Jesuits, who wielded great power in France, Spain, and Portugal through their running of secondary schools, missionary work in colonies, and role as advisors to Catholic kings, soon were viewed targets for elimination
Over a 14 year period beginning in 1759, the Jesuits not only saw their influence end in these countries but their religious order cease to exist
The end of the Jesuits was paralleled by a decline in papal power
Austria, through its Edict on Idle Institutions (1782), suppressed all the contemplative monastic orders, allowing only those that provided charitable or educational services to survive (cut the number of monks in Austria by 50%)
toleration and religious minorities
despite religious hard-liners such as Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Austria, some progress was made toward the principle of religious toleration in Europe
however, heretics were still persecuted during the 18th Century with the last known burning of a heretic taking place in 1781.
Joseph II of Austria led the way in terms of religious toleration with his Toleration Patent of 1781 which recognized Catholicism’s public practice, granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately; in all other ways, his subjects were considered equal
toleration of Jews
the Jews remained the most despised religious minority in Europe
the largest number of Jews (Ashkenazic) lived in eastern Europe where they were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes, and subject to periodic and often violent outbursts of public wrath (relatively tolerant Poland was the only exception to this treatment in eastern Europe)
the Jews (Sephardic) were also kicked out of Spain and soon migrated to Turkish lands as well as religiously tolerant cities such as Amsterdam, Venice, London, and Frankfurt where Jews were relatively free to participate in banking and commercial activities that they had been traditionally involved in since the Middle Ages
some Enlightenment thinkers favored a new acceptance of Jews and urged that governments grant full citizenship to them
many Europeans favored the assimilation of Jews into the mainstream of society, but only by the conversion of Jews to Christianity
perhaps the most tolerant of the 18th Century monarchs toward Jews was Joseph II of Austria who made limited reforms by:
freeing Jews from nuisance taxes and allowing them more job opportunities and freedom of movement
encouraging Jews to learn German to better assimilate into Austrian society
still restricted Jews from owning land or worshiping in public
Popular Religion in the 18th Century
Catholic piety
it is difficult to assess the religiosity of Europe’s Catholics during this era
despite the Reformation, much popular devotion was still directed to an externalized form of worship focusing on prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and devotion to relics and images
many clergymen of the time felt that their parishioners were more superstitious than devout
Protestant revivalism
by the 17th Century, Protestant churches had settled down into well-established patterns controlled by state authorities and served by a well-educated clergy
more and more, Protestant churches became bureaucratized and bereft of religious enthusiasm
in response to rationalism and deism, many ordinary Protestant churchgoers began searching for greater depths of religious experience which eventually sparked Pietism
begun in Germany in the 17th Century by a group of German clerics who wished their religion to be more personal and transformative
spread by the teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf (1700-1760) and his Moravian Brethren
utterly opposed to the rationalist movement within Lutheran church
John Wesley (1703-1791) led a Protestant revival in England
created and controlled his evangelical Methodist church using revivalist techniques
his message appealed to the lower classes neglected by the socially elitist Anglican Church of the time
wanted to keep Methodist teachings within the umbrella of Anglican church but his movement left the Anglican church after his death
his movement proved that the need for spiritual experience had not been expunged by the 18th Century search for reason